VAD can have numerous negative health effects such as dryness of the eye that can lead to blindness if untreated, reduced immune system response, and an increase in the severity and mortality risk of infections. Putting ethics at the centre of everyday life. Aggregative Consequentialism = which consequences are best is some function of the values of parts of those consequences (as opposed to rankings of whole worlds or sets of consequences). Accessed July 24, 2018. For example, restricting the movement of unvaccinated individuals into the country reduces the spread of COVID-19. Religion plays a large part in the ethical issue of abortion, just like with . Published November 9, 2017. Accessed July 25, 2018. It is therefore important to weigh the relative benefits and burdens of specific FRT uses in health care and to conduct research into how patients perceive its use. The Ethical Theory. We should note that Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act. An objective measure of whether something is good or bad, and by how much. This was his theory of rule utilitarianism. With a little help from Batman, Hank explains the principle of utility, and the d For more information on consequentialism and utilitarianism follow the links below: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/, https://ethics.org.au/ethics-explainer-consequentialism/, All Content is the property of Keerut Oberai unless stated otherwise or an external link.Made with Squarespace. Closed loop deep brain stimulation for PTSD, addiction, and disorders of affective facial interpretation: review and discussion of potential biomarkers and stimulation paradigms. Immanuel Kant started developing deontology after he was inspired by the movement called the Enlightenment, which emphasized human reason and individual autonomy. Consequentialism Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. So, to decide whether or not to take some step, we must calculate whether it will produce the best overall outcome for the highest number of people. Should Watson Be Consulted for a Second Opinion? Shedding Privacy Along with our Genetic Material: What Constitutes Adequate Legal Protection against Surreptitious Genetic Testing? The final result was amazing, and I highly recommend www.HelpWriting.net to anyone in the same mindset as me. The first ethical theory we will look at more closely is consequentialism. In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. Instant access to millions of ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, podcasts and more. Biom Technol Today. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. 2016 May;23(3):265-76. doi: 10.1177/0969733014564101. Their justification is that this action would produce the most overall welfare.. A requirement to uphold the confidentiality of information shared in the physician-patient relationship is a central tenet of medical professionalism that, while at risk and undermined in various ways in modern medicine [1], has been consistently endorsed from the time of Hippocrates. To this objection, the consequentialist can protest that alienation can be a virtue. Now, if the foreign power does intervene on the basis of humanitarian concerns to liberate the minority from the reign of terror that subjects to such misery and death, war becomes a necessary and moral objective on part of the foreign power to liberate the minority people. How Should Clinicians Communicate With Patients About the Roles of Artificially Intelligent Team Members? Basel-Vanagaite L, Wolf L, Orin M, et al. Computer-based recognition of dysmorphic faces. As what matters is only the end result, who is acting or how they arrive at the decisions they make is irrelevant. She earned a JD from Harvard Law School and a PhD from the University of Chicago in comparative human development. Epub 2019 Apr 11. Select Accept to consent or Reject to decline non-essential cookies for this use. such as consequentialism, virtue ethics . Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. On the other, FRT medication adherence monitoring might not be sufficiently effective in improving adherence to outweigh the risk of undermining trust in the patient-physician relationship.42. Consequentialism Consequentialism is a type of teleological theory -- consequentialist theories suggest that the moral value, the moral rightness or wrongness of an act, is entirely a function of the consequences, or the results of that act. Front Psychol. He said, she said: Investigating the Christian Porter Case. Now we will look at an example of how utilitarianism may be used in a medical context. Her research focuses on neuroethics as well as the ethics of digital health technology and machine learning with a focus on mental health issues and special populations. Chan School of Public Health. This is the basis of duty based ethics, also known as deontology, which we will turn our attention to in the next post. Wellcome TrustFunded Monographs and Book Chapters. Because it counted every persons pleasure or pain as the same, regardless of age, wealth, race, etc. By accepting, you agree to the updated privacy policy. But as previously stated, war and the strife and chaos that comes with it are undesirable; however, in this particular circumstance something that may be bad as war can be said to be a for a good cause. Also, it does not matter who performs the action, only the action itself as Williams example shows. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. An example of consequentialism is utilitarianism. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging.13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example.14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such as monitoring elderly patients for safety or attempts to leave a health care facility16 or monitoring medication adherence through the use of sensors and facial recognition to confirm when patients take their medications.17. One recent example that gained notoriety was an FRT system used to identify gay men from a set of photos that may have simply identified the kind of grooming and dress habits stereotypically associated with gay men.30 The developers of this FRT system did not intend it to be used for a clinical purpose but rather to illustrate how bias can influence FRT findings.30, Thankfully, potential solutions for addressing bias in FRT systems exist. Ghaemi SN, Goodwin FK. The consequentialist could retort that in calculating what course of action is right, the individuals integrity can be taken into account. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. Managing ongoing swallow safety through information-sharing: An ethnography of speech and language therapists and nurses at work on stroke units. Never kill an innocent person or never lie are examples of such rules. US Department of Health and Human Services. Public health ethics only began to gain prominence as a distinct field within bioethics around the year 2000 and its proponents have had the task of defining it as distinct from medical ethics due to the distinct nature of public health (e.g., Childress et al., 2002, p. 170; Dawson, 2011, p. 1; Upshur, 2002, p. 101). The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. National Library of Medicine Federal Privacy Protections: Ethical Foundations, Sources of Confusion in Clinical Medicine, and Controversies in Biomedical Research, Mary Anderlik Majumder, JD, PhD and Christi J. Guerrini, JD. Atlas of human malformation syndromes in diverse populations. It is one of the main causes of preventable blindness in young children from developing countries. The principle of utilitarianism invites us to consider the immediate and the less immediate consequences of our actions. FRT in health care also raises ethical questions about privacy and data protection, potential bias in the data or analysis, and potential negative implications for the therapeutic alliance in patient-clinician relationships. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good. Bookshelf Deontological Ethics. Instead, it is being driven by patients, who are increasingly turning into consumers. The consequentialism theory supports the decision because it has more benefits than harm. Tunkelang D. Ten things everyone should know about machine learning. Facial recognition software success rates for the identification of 3D surface reconstructed facial images: implications for patient privacy and security. MeSH "The rationale isn't that they're more worthy; it's that they can contribute in the longer run to saving more lives.". Facial recognition technology (FRT) utilizes software to map a persons facial characteristics and then store the data as a face template.1 Algorithms or machine learning techniques are applied to a database to compare facial images or to find patterns in facial features for verification or authentication purposes.2 FRT is attractive for a variety of health care applications, such as diagnosing genetic disorders, monitoring patients, and providing health indicator information (related to behavior, aging, longevity, or pain experience, for example).3-5, FRT is likely to become a useful tool for diagnosing many medical and genetic conditions.6,7 Machine learning techniques, in which a computer program is trained on a large data set to recognize patterns and generates its own algorithms on the basis of learning,8 have already been used to assist in diagnosing a patient with a rare genetic disorder that had not been identified after years of clinical effort.9 Machine learning can also detect more subtle correlations between facial morphology and genetic disorders than clinicians.4 It is thought that FRT can therefore eventually be used to assist in earlier detection and treatment of genetic disorders,10,11 and computer applications (commonly known as apps) such as Face2Gene have been developed to assist clinicians in diagnosing genetic disorders.12, FRT has other potential health care applications. No other adults or swimmers are anywhere to be seen, so without your help the child will drown. We will close by outlining the areas where consequentialism is at odds with current medical law and how medical law should evolve according to consequentialism. March 21, 2017. http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data. AWB. Some of the moral philosophers associated with this theory include Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, Henry Sidgwick and many others. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. What matters in this example is saving the highest number of lives, and how this is attained is unimportant. health. Smart and Bernard Williams, 1973. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. This chapter outlines core characteristics of Utilitarianism and explores them with regard to their significance in healthcare settings. Being such a controversial topic some might argue that abortion should be considered murder, while others simply see it as a way to get rid of a problem. In: Philosophical Foundations of Medical Law. The site is secure. One way is by using ethical concepts to shed light on everyday practice. 2013;118:1-9. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53501-6.00001-9. The use of FRT in health care suggests the importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. There is important reason for the root word. Medical News Today. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. The meaning of CONSEQUENTIALISM is the theory that the value and especially the moral value of an act should be judged by the value of its consequences. Accessibility Pharmacy (Basel). Researchers flag up facial recognition racial bias [news]. Keeping to those rules ensures that. Equality is certainly one of the key principles behind Utilitarian philosophy. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams' famous 'Jim and the . health ethics. M1- Analyse the impact of prevening discriminaion for individuals with diferent needs. Forbes. and transmitted securely. Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. January 9, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/. A consequence of consequentialism, however, is that it fails to respect the integrity of the individuals involved. In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. New technology may provide the answer. In this example: A hospital has limited capacity to deal with Covid-19 patients and is having to decide between admitting a 20 year old patient, who is fit and well, and a 75 year old patient, who has a history of heart disease, to their last available ventilator. Submit a manuscript for peer review consideration. Many utilitarians take a hedonistic approach, saying that utility equates to happiness, so we should act to produce the greatest happiness, and to minimize pain and unhappiness. Face recognition methods and applications. Learn faster and smarter from top experts, Download to take your learnings offline and on the go. It presents Utilitarianism as characterised by the following five features: (1) consequentialism, (2) welfarism, (3) equality of moral status and impartiality, (4) maximisation, (5) aggregation. One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in his/her doctor, and perhaps doctors generally, resulting in him/her not accessing healthcare in the future with a detrimental effect on his/her (and others?) This is because all things being equal they will live longer and may contribute more to society over a longer period of time. Tap here to review the details. I discuss this possibility briefly, and then set it aside. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. The oppressor, obviously, retaliates with ever more repressive measures to crush the minority by force. 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. The result justifies the means are based on a consequentialism. PMC _____ ethics looks to the nature of relationships to guide participants in making difficult decisions. Benthams theory of utilitarianism focussed on which actions were most likely to make people happy. Killing the one Indian is going to have a profound effect on Jims life but for the consequentialist, Jims values are irrelevant. LinkedIn and 3rd parties use essential and non-essential cookies to provide, secure, analyze and improve our Services, and (except on the iOS app) to show you relevant ads (including professional and job ads) on and off LinkedIn. Clipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later. As Peter Railton says: The alienation of some individuals or groups from their milieu may at times be necessary for fundamental social criticism or cultural innovation (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs 1984). Haahr A, Norlyk A, Martinsen B, Dreyer P. Nurs Ethics. Knight W. Theres a big problem with AI: even its creators cant explain how it works. Copyright 2023 American Medical Association. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Accessed April 8, 2017. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. Molteni M. Thanks to AI, computers can now see your health problems. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. Utilitarianism in Public Health January 2016 . Now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips. 2020 Feb;27(1):258-272. doi: 10.1177/0969733019832941. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). October 6, 2017. http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx. 2017;242:797-804. Complex and expensive treatment options have increased the frequency and emphasis of ethical decision-making in healthcare. Hughes N. Google takes aim at controversial, stringent Illinois biometric privacy law. In particular, it retains a commitment in many jurisdictions to the Sanctity of Life Doctrine, though this is being shed or modified as assisted dying becomes legalised. Subsequent actions are mediated though ethical decision-making frames of reference including deontology, consequentialism, the ethics of care and virtue ethics.
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